The claim that God is not the universe itself but its maker—and therefore responsible for its design—is a longstanding philosophical idea. Some philosophers have admired it; others have dismissed it. The concept of God as a necessary being refers to the idea that God has no maker but creates all things.
The Necessary Being Assumption
Norris Clarke argues that, because all parts of the universe depend on each other, there must exist a designer outside the universe. According to Clarke, no part of the universe could be self-sufficient, and therefore a self-sufficient designer must exist to explain the order of things. He writes that only a designer outside the universe could have made entities that are individually insufficient but collectively orderly.
However, this reasoning is problematic. The universe contains parts that can exist independently. For instance, if the rest of the universe vanished, the sun could still exist without contradiction. Thus, Clarke’s argument ultimately relies on the same assumption as the necessary being argument. Presenting it as a separate line of reasoning may be misleading, as it does not independently strengthen the case for God.
Designed or Appearing Designed?
Things that appear designed may be genuinely designed. It may be cosmetic. Imagine if God designed the universe not to be a home for us and to be a wonder, but as a mere art project? We need assume no more than that.
The design could be real or entirely illusory, or a combination of both.
Even if we assume that design is necessary, this does not imply that appearances of disorder are free from design. In fact, creating something that looks chaotic but is orderly requires more planning than simple organization. If God made the universe appear natural and unordered, it raises questions about the nature of the designer: is the design purely cosmetic? If so, it could reflect incompetence rather than intelligence. It definitely reflects divine irrelevance.
The Question of an Intelligent Designer
Proponents of intelligent design argue that the complexity of the universe and living beings is evidence of purposeful creation. Critics contend that this argument only demonstrates that the universe might have a designer, not that this designer is God. Furthermore, the existence of multiple possible designers complicates the claim that a singular God is responsible. For example, some religious doctrines, such as Mormon cosmology, propose multiple spiritual agents contributing to creation.
Even if a creator exists, it need not be highly intelligent. A creator could be minimal in intelligence yet capable of producing a universe. Similarly, intelligence alone does not prove moral or purposeful design. The argument from design cannot establish that the designer is benevolent, rational, or singular.
Design and Purpose
Some arguments claim that the utility of the universe implies a divine designer. This reasoning is circular: it assumes that because the universe is useful, it must have been designed for that purpose. It does not rule out multiple designers, accidental design, or the existence of flawed or imperfect design. A universe could be functional without being intentionally designed by a God.
Anthony Kenny observes that design does not necessarily imply purpose. Machines, for example, can be products of design without serving a specific goal. Even if a designer exists, there is no guarantee that the designer has a purpose for human life, which is central to religious claims.
Religion often emphasizes the challenges or uncertainties in scientific explanations that deny intelligent design, sometimes to persuade people to reject science and remain skeptical of it. Yet, when critics point out difficulties in the argument for intelligent design, religious apologists respond, “A thousand difficulties do not make a doubt,” demonstrating a clear double standard. Scientific theories, such as Einstein’s relativity or natural selection, also face challenges and unanswered questions, yet these do not undermine their overall validity because there is sufficient evidence supporting them. In contrast, religion frequently asserts, without equivalent evidence, that the universe was specifically organized and designed for human beings. While it claims to guide humanity toward realizing its true dignity, this perspective implies that much of history and creation exists primarily to produce religious individuals.
Problems with God as Designer
The concept of a perfect, infinite God designing all things is difficult to reconcile with the presence of suffering and apparent flaws in the universe. If God created everything, then evil, suffering, and error are part of the design. This raises questions about divine competence, benevolence, or intention.
The argument from design also fails to prove miracles. If complex natural phenomena can exist without a designer, the occurrence of unusual or extraordinary events does not necessarily indicate divine intervention. That complex natural phenomena would be more amazing - so what we do we want miracles for? It is like looking for fairy-tales.
Morality and Design
Kenny and Aristotle argue that attributing moral qualities to God is problematic. Moral properties arise in communities and social contexts, not in an abstract, infinite being. On the other hand, one could argue that God’s conception of morality differs from humans’, in the sense that a highly knowledgeable and powerful being may act differently to achieve greater good. Nevertheless, the design argument cannot demonstrate moral goodness.
The Role of Chance and Natural Law
The presence of countless planets, universes, and natural processes suggests that life could emerge by chance without invoking a deity. The law of entropy further demonstrates that apparent design is often the result of random processes. What appears as intelligent design may actually be the outcome of blind experiments in nature, where errors and accidents produce functional systems.
Conclusion
While the argument from design highlights complexity and apparent order, it does not prove that God exists, that the designer is intelligent, moral, or singular, or that the universe was purposefully created for human life. Natural laws, chance, and necessity can explain much of what we observe, making the design argument insufficient as proof of a deity.
APPENDIX
Antony Kenny observes that the idea that God designed all things for a purpose cannot be proven because things can be designed and still not be for a purpose. A machine can design but not for a purpose for it has no will (page 83, What is Faith?) and it is possible for a machine to be developed by pure chance. It is more objective to hold that it is not for a purpose. We have a bias - we want to feel reality is ultimately about us. So we should stand by the minimal view - its not purposeful.
The universe resembles a poorly run experiment more than a deliberate design. It contains inefficiencies and hazards—extinct species, deadly natural events, and convoluted biological structures—that suggest trial and error rather than planning. Entropy ensures decay, and vast unused resources show redundancy rather than purpose. Complexity exists, but it is often messy, wasteful, and error-prone, consistent with blind processes rather than intentional, flawless design.
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